MIDTERM+REVIEW2009

Honors Biology Midterm Review 2009
- organized by Kat Carrigan (and other p.7 students)


 * Chapter 1**
 * By Jocelyn K. (Period 7)

Organisms **- living things Molecule **- the smallest unit in an organism that can be sub divided and still obtain their chemical properties Element **- a substance that may not be broken down into simpler substance Subatomic Particle **- The small particles in an atom (proton, neutron, electron) **Neutron**- neutral charge **Electron**- negative charge Electron Shells **- different energy levels inside the electron “cloud” that surrounds the nucleus Isotopes **- atoms of the same element that differ in their number of neutrons Chemical bonds **-the attraction, sharing, or transferring of outer shell electrons from one atom to another Law of Conservation of Matter **- states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions  Ion **- an atom or molecule that has acquired a positive or negative charge as a result of gaining or losing electrons Ionic Bond **- the attraction between oppositely charged ions Covalent Bond **- two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons Hydrogen Bond **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a weak attraction occurring between a slightly negative and a slightly positive hydrogen molecule pH scale **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a range of numbers that describe the levels of H+ and OH-
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<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">**Acidic** <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a solution that has more H+ than OH- ions (pH < 7) Basic **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a solution with more OH- than H+ ions (pH > 7) Organic Compounds **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- an important chemical compound needed for life Carbohydrates **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- simple sugars that are found in all types of living cells Monosaccharide **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the simplest carbohydrate, it is a single sugar Disaccharide **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- to simple sugar molecules bonded to make a double sugar Polysaccharide **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">-several glucose molecules bonded to form a complex carbohydrate Lipids **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- (fats/oils) macromolecules that have long term storage of energy and carbon and build Proteins **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- macromolecules inside every living cell that are the structural components and the messengers and receivers Amino Acids **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- small molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms that are the building blocks of proteins Peptide Bond **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a covalent bond formed between amino acids Polypeptide **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a long chain of amino acids formed by additional peptide bonds Nucleic Acids **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- macromolecules that dictate the amino-acid sequence of proteins, which controls life processes Nucleotides **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- simple units used to build up nucleic acids, it has three parts: a 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group RNA **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- nucleic acids that contain ribose in their nucleotides (ribonucleic acid) DNA **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- nucleic acids that contain deoxyribose in their nucleotides (deoxyribonucleic acid)
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<span style="color: rgb(255,0,0); background-color: rgb(255,255,255);"><span style="color: rgb(255,15,15);"><span style="color: rgb(255,5,5);">**Chapter 2** ORGANISMS AND ENERGY //**Chapter 2.2: Energy and Nutrients**// **energy:** the capacity to do work or to cause change **chemical energy:** the energy organisms store in the organic molecules from which they are made. Organisms can use some of this energy as it is released during chemical reactions **free energy:** the portion of the energy from chemical reactions that is available to do work **nutrients:** raw materials needed to to make complex molecules and to increase cellular organization during growth **heterotrophs:** organisms that obtain energy and nutrients from other organisms, either living or dead. Ex: animals, fungi (mushrooms and molds) and most bacteria **autotrophs:** organisms that obtain energy and nutrients from nonliving sources such as the Sun, minerals, and the air. Ex: plants, some bacteria, and other organisms that capture energy from the Sun or from chemicals **photosynthesis:** a process where energy is captured from sunlight, and then is used to synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water. Carried out by photoautotrophs. **chemosynthesis:** the process by which free energy can be obtained from inorganic chemicals in the environment, which is then stored as chemical energy and used for cellular work. Carried out by chemoautotrophs, which are strictly bacteria. **cell respiration:** chemical reactions carried out by both hetero- and autotrophs that release free energy and organic compounds //**Chapter 2.3: Energy and Ecosystems**// **producers:** the organisms in a community which produce food for the other orgaisms within the community to use. These are autotrophs. **consumers:** organisms that consume plants and other organisms for food. These are heterotrophs. **decomposers:** organisms that break down and use dead plants and animals for food. These include bacteria, fungi, and other heterotrophs. **food web:** a web showing the flow of energy through the environment. Energy and nutrients flow from the producers to the consumers and finally to the decomposers, which then complete the breakdown of the organic nutrients so they can be reused. **abiotic:** nonliving factors in an environment such as soil, minerals, water, and weather **biotic:** living factors within an environment, composed of plants and animals **ecosystem:** the biotic and abiotic components of a particular place, such as a forest, pond, or praire **habitats:** specific places within each ecosystem where particular organisms live. Ex: In a pond, some organisms are bottom dwellers, while other live along the shore. **biosphere:** all ecosystems combined <span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">ENERGY FLOW <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.4: Energy Conversions**// **trophic structure**: the nutritional relationships among species of an ecosystem that determine the path of energy flow and pattern of chemical cycling.


 * Herbivores**: a plant eating consumer; one of the class of consumers most closely associated with producers


 * Carnivores**: any organism that consumes animals; a meat eater


 * energy pyramid**:a representation of the trophic structure of an ecosystem in which a decrease in the area at each level of the diagram illustrates the loss of energy available to those organisms living in that trophic level.


 * 10% rule**: only 10% of energy is obtained by the consumer and the biomass of the spicies of the consumer is 10% of the biomass of its prey


 * Biomass**:the dry weight of organis matter composing a group of organisms in a particular habitat.


 * Productivity**: The rate at which new biomass forms.Highest amond primary producers and declines at higher trophic levels.


 * Niche**: the total of an organism's utilization of the biotic and abiotic resources of its enviroment.


 * Competitive Exclusion**: the principle that when the populations of two species compete for the same limited resource at the same time, one population will use the resource more efficiently, leading to local extinction of the other species.


 * Mutualism**:symbiotic relationship that mutually benefits two species.


 * Parasitism**:a symtiotic relationship between two species in which one (the parasite) benefits at the expense of the other (the host)


 * Commensalism**: a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other niether benefits nor is harmed by the relationship.


 * exponential growth**: rapid growth in which some value, such as population size, increases by a certain percentage, of the total during a given period of time.


 * population density**:number of organisms per unit ofhabitat area.


 * logistic growth**: growth typically shown by populations in the natural world; the population size increases rapidly at first, then more slowly, finally leveling off at a value called the carrying capacity.


 * Carrying capacity**: the maximum population size that can be supported by the available resources of a given area at a given time.


 * boom and bust cycle**: a pattern of population growth in which exponential growth leads to a period when the population exceeds its carrying capacity, causeing the population to decrease rapidly or crash.

<span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**first law of thermodynamics:** the law derived from the principle of the conservation of energy stating that energy can be neither created nor destroyed but it can be transferred or transformed. <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**law of conservation of energy: the law stating that energy can be either created nor destroyed only changed from one form into another** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.5: Energy and Entropy**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**second law of thermodynamics: all systems change in a way that increases entropy** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**entropy: disorder due to lack of usable energy** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.6: Enzymes and Energy**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**enzymes: protiens that act as catalysts for chemical reactions** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**catalysts: a substance which lowers the amount of activation energy needed for a chamical reaction** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**active site: the are of the enzym that combines/splits the substrate(s)** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**substrate: what is being changed by the enzyme/catalyst** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.7: Chemical Reactions in Organisms**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**metabolism: all chamical reactions happening within an organism** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**synthesis: the production of complex molecules from simple molecules** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**decomposition: the production of simple molecules from complex molecules** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.8: Energy Transfer and ATP**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**oxidation: the loss of electrons reduction: the gain of elections** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**ATP: adenosine triphosphate is used as a common energy carrier for all sorts of chemical reactions, energy is released when the third phosphate group breaks off of the molecule** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**ADP: adenosine diphosphate is the remains of ATP after the third phosphate group detaches, ADP is used to create more ATP** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">DIGESTION <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.9: Digestion**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**digestion: the processes that break down food** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**extracellular digestion: digestion that happens outside of the cells** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**intracellular digestion: digestion that happens inside of the cells** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.10: An Overview of Human Digestion**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**ingestion: the taking in of food** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**saliva: a substance containing enzymes which break down food** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**epiglottis: the tissue that prevents food from entering the airways** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**peristalsis: the wave-like motion of muscles that is used to move a material through an organ** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**feces: waste** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**Chapter 2.11: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, and Absorbtion**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**salivary amylase: the main enzym that is contained in saliva, it starts to break down carbohydrates** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**gastrin: a horomone that signals the secretion of hydrocloric acid which turns pepsinogen into pepsin** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**pepsin: an enzyme which digests protiens** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**pepsinogen: the unactivated form of pepsin** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**trypsin: an enzyme that further breaks down protiens into amino acids** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**bile: a substance which physically breaks down lipids** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**lipase: the enzyme that chemically breaks down lipids** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**villi (sing. v** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">//**illus**// <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;"> **): fingerish projections that are used to increase the surface area of an organ and to help absorb materials** <span style="font-family: Garamond,serif;">**capillaries: thin blood vessels that are entry points for materials, located on the villi** By Jocleyn K. (period 7)**<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">
 * Chapter 3**

Cytoplasm **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the cell’s interior that is surrounded by a wall and a membrane
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Transport Proteins **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- special proteins that help charged molecules pass through the cell membrane
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Selectively Permeable **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the membrane regulates the exchange of materials in a very specific way
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Glycoproteins/Glycolipids **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- both act as antennae that receive chemical messages from other cells
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Diffusion **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Concentration Gradient **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- occurs when there is a difference in concentration of molecules across a distance
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Osmosis **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the movement of water down a concentration gradient
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Turgor **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the outward pressure of a cell against its cell wall
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Passive Transport **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- diffusion without energy involved
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Active Transport **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- diffusion with the help of energy
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Facilitated Diffusion **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- diffusion when the molecules move down the concentration gradient with the help of transport proteins
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Endocytosis **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- helps cells get food into the internal environment
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Extocytosis **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- helps cells remove waste
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Cuticle **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a water-repellent covering
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Stomates **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- openings on a leaf’s surface
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Transpiration **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the loss of water through a plant’s Stomates
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Homeostasis **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the balanced and controlled conditions in the internal environment of an organism
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Ammonia **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- amino groups removed from amino acids (NH3)
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Nephrons **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the excretory tubules of a human
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Kidney **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- major organ responsible for processing waste products
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Urinary System **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the kidneys, blood vessels, and plumbing in the human body
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Urine **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- waste fluid
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Ureter **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- tube where urine leaves the kidneys
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Urinary Bladder **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- holding tank where the ureter drains into
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Urethra **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a tube where the urinary bladder is periodically drained
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Glomeral Capsule **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the cup of nephrons
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Glomerulus **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- the ball of capillaries within the glomeral capsule
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Aldosterone **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Feedback Regulation **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a process when substances inhibit their own formation
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Antidiuretic Hormone **<span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">- a substance that causes the cell membranes of collecting duct cells to become more permeable to water


 * Chapter 4**

Photoautotrophs- an organism that derives energy from light and forms its own organic compounds (food) from abiotic carbon sources

Chemoautotrophs- an organism that derives energy from oxidation of inorganic compounds

Pigments- any coloring matter or substance

Chloroplast- an organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protests; the site of photosynthesis

Chlorophyll- the green pigments of plants and many microorganisms; converts light energy to chemical energy that is used in biological reactions

Light Reactions- the energy-capturing reactions in photosynthesis

Calvin Cycle- the cycle that incorporates carbon dioxide in sugars during photosynthesis; uses chemical energy previously converted from light energy

NADP+ - nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; a hydrogen carrier in photosynthesis.

ATP synthetase- an enzyme complex in the inner membrane of a mitochondrion and the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast that catalyzes the formation of ATP

Rate- the amount of change over a period of time.

Photoinhibition- damage to the light-gathering process in photosynthesis; occurs when a chloroplast has absorbed too much light energy.

Photorespiration- a metabolic pathway in plants that consumes oxygen, produces carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and reduces photosynthesis

Bundle Sheath- a tightly packed layer of cells that surrounds a vascular bundle in the leaves of C4 plants, plants such as crabgrass and corn in which carbon dioxide is fixed twice.

CAM- crassulacean-acid metabolism; an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions in which carbon dioxide entering open stomates at night is converted into organic acids that release carbon dioxide during the day when the stomates are closed


 * Chapter 5**

Cell Respiration- the series of chemical reactions by which a living cell breaks down carbohydrates and obtains energy from them.

Aerobic- occurring or living in the presence of free or dissolved oxygen. Anaerobic- occurring or living in conditions without free or dissolved oxygen.

Glycolysis- the initial breakdown of a carb usually glucose, into smaller molecules at the beginning of cell respiration.

Krebs Cycle- the cycle in cell respiration that completes the breakdown of the intermediate products of glycolysis, releasing energy.

NAD+ - an electron and hydrogen carrier in cell respiration.

Electron Transport System- electrons transfer from one carrier molecule to another in photosynthesis and in CR; results in some energy in ATP molecules.

FAD- combines with 2 hydrogen atoms during CR to form FADH2

Pyruvic Acid- 3-carbon compound that is the end product of glycolysis.

Lactate- the ion of a 3-carbon acid (lactate acid) formed from pyruivc acid in fermentation. Lactate acid fermentation- an anaerobic pathway ATP when the conversion of private to lactate produces NAD+, which cycles back through glycolysis.

Mitochondria- the organelles in eukaryotic cells that carry on CR; the site of ATP synthesis and of the Krebs Cycle.

Coenzyme A- a small molecule required for enzymatic activity, present in all cells; necessary for CR and fatty-acid metabolism.

Cytochrons- an electron-carrying pigment in electron transport systems.

Facultative aerobes- an organism that is normally anaerobic but can grow with oxygen

Obligate anaerobes- a microorganisms that lives without using oxygen and finds it harmful

Hydrolysis- the splitting of a molecule by reaction with H2O.

(CR= cell respiration)


 * Chapter 6**